Professional identity serves as a critical factor influencing rural teachers’ intention to remain in their positions. A survey of 5,342 rural teachers in Yunnan Province, examining their turnover intentions and influencing factors, provides valuable insights into how professional identity affects retention and reveals the specific pathways through which this influence operates. The findings indicate a significant positive correlation between professional identity and rural teachers’ retention intention. Each sub-dimension of professional identity—including professional awareness, sense of professional belonging, and professional behavioral tendency—positively predicts retention intention. Furthermore, variables such as teaching experience, grade level taught, teaching position, family origin, monthly income, and perceived social status significantly moderate the positive predictive effect of professional identity on retention intention. To stabilize the rural teaching workforce, it is essential to prioritize and enhance rural teachers’ professional identity. During pre-service training, it is crucial to strengthen teacher candidates’ professional role experiences and shape their professional values. At the induction stage, it is necessary to establish long-term mechanisms for local teacher preparation and facilitate the deep integration of non-local teachers into rural communities. For in-service teachers, it is vital to enhance organizational support and professional development opportunities. Simultaneously, improving the alignment between effort and compensation for rural teachers will further boost their motivation to teach.